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The Novum Organum is a philosophical work by Francis Bacon published in 1620. The title translates as new instrument. This is a reference to Aristotle's work Organon, which was his treatise on logic and syllogism. In Novum Organum, Bacon details a new system of logic he believes to be superior to the old ways of syllogism. For Bacon, finding the essence of a thing was a simple process of reduction, and the use of inductive reasoning . . . This work was critical in the historical development of the scientific method....

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Philosophy

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The Discourse on Method is best known as the source of the famous quotation “cogito ergo sum”, “I think, therefore I am.” …. It is a method which gives a solid platform from which all modern natural sciences could evolve. With this work, the idea of skepticism was revived from the ancients such as Sextus Empiricus and modified to account for a truth that Descartes found to be incontrovertible. Descartes started his line of reasoning by doubting everything, so as to assess the world from a fresh perspective, clear of any preconceived notions....

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Philosophy

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The Ethics is a philosophical book written by Baruch Spinoza. It was written in Latin. Although it was published posthumously in 1677, it is his most famous work, and is considered his magnum opus. In The Ethics, Spinoza attempts to demonstrate a fully cohesive philosophical system that strives to provide a coherent picture of reality and to comprehend the meaning of an ethical life. Following a logical step-by-step format, it defines in turn the nature of God, the mind, human bondage to the emotions, and the power of understanding -- moving from a consideration of the eternal, to speculate upon humanity's place in the natural order, freedom, and the path to attainable happiness.(Wikipedia)...

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Philosophy

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Marcus Aurelius wrote Meditations in Greek while on campaign between 170 and 180, as a source for his own guidance and self-improvement. These memos survive and continue to inspire others to this day. These writings take the form of quotations varying in length from one sentence to long paragraphs. He explicates the Stoic philosophy that the only way a man can be harmed by others is to allow his reaction to overpower him. He shows no particular religious faith in his writings, but seems to believe that some sort of logical, benevolent force organizes the universe in such a way that even bad occurrences happen for the good of the whole. (Summary by Ticktockman)...

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Philosophy

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Our book will update the old Chinese thinking in Tao Te Ching to the modern way of life, where contradictions are accepted and two opposite ideas 'A' and 'nonA' and their neutrality 'neutA' can all three be true at the same time. Firstly, we are willing to point out that 'Tao Te Ching' already has some limitation, because many questions we are interested in cannot be answered within 'Tao Te Ching'. For example, 'Tao Te Ching' basically discussed the matters in China, however considering all possible situations it should matter in foreign countries as well, i.e. the “global village”. This was impossible in Lao Tzu’s time. Secondly, if the original “Tao Te Ching” is regarded as “Positive Tao Te Ching”, its opposite is “Negative Tao Te Ching”, while the intermediate or compound state is “Neutral Tao Te Ching”. Thus, our book presents the way to extend the original “Tao Te Ching” in various neutrosophic interpretations....

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Positive (Original) Chapter 1 The Way that can be followed is not the eternal Way. The name that can be called is not the eternal name. The Principle that can be explained is not the eternal Principle. “Nonexistence” is the name of the origin of heaven and earth; “Existence” is the name of creating the myriad things. Therefore, the essence of Principle always can be seen from “Nonexistence”; The operation of Principle always can be seen from “Existence”. These two are profound and from the same origin, while their titles are different. More and more profound, that is the general door to all essences. Negative Chapter 1 The Way that cannot be followed is the Eternal Way. The name that cannot be called is the eternal name. The Principle that cannot be explained is the eternal Principle. ‘Nonexistence’ is not the name of the origin of heaven and earth; ‘Existence’ is not the name of creating the myriad things. Therefore, the essence of Principle cannot ever be seen from ‘Nonexistence’; The operation of Principle cannot ever be seen from ‘Existence’. These two are simple and from the different origins, while their ti...

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Brief Introduction……………………………………………………..……….3 Foreword………………………………………………………………..………6 Positive, Negative and Neutrosophic Chapter 1…………………………….14 Positive, Negative and Neutrosophic Chapter 2…………………………….16 Positive, Negative and Neutrosophic Chapter 3…………………………….18 Positive, Negative and Neutrosophic Chapter 4…………………………….19 Positive, Negative and Neutrosophic Chapter 5…………………………….20 Positive, Negative and Neutrosophic Chapter 6…………………………….21 Positive, Negative and Neutrosophic Chapter 7…………………………….22 Positive, Negative and Neutrosophic Chapter 8…………………………….23 Positive, Negative and Neutrosophic Chapter 9…………………………….24 Positive, Negative and Neutrosophic Chapter 10…………………….……..24 Positive, Negative and Neutrosophic Chapter 11…………………….……..26 Positive, Negative and Neutrosophic Chapter 12…………………….……..26 Positive, Negative and Neutrosophic Chapter 13…………………….……..27 Positive, Negative and Neutrosophic Chapter 14………………….………..28 Positive, Negative and Neutrosophic Chapter 15………………….………..29 Positive, Negative and Neutrosophic Chapter 16……………….…………..30 Positive, Negative and Neutrosophic Chapter 17………………….………..31 Positive, ...

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Posterior Analytics is the fourth of Aristotle's six texts on logic which are collectively known as the Organon (Instrument). Posterior Analytics deals with demonstration, definition, and scientific knowledge. Demonstration is distinguished as a syllogism productive of scientific knowledge, while Definition is marked as the statement of a thing's nature, a statement of the meaning of the name, or of an equivalent nominal formula. (Introduction Adapted from Wikipedia)...

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Classics (antiquity), Philosophy

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Collections of original poetry in the mainstream European tradition.

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Cool Dawn Light The End Of History Under Clumps Of Pine What To Be? White Cloud Drifts Beyond the City The Real Makers Into Quiet Air Sleeping, Waking Listening In The Clearing Empty Mirror Form Is Void Just As It Is Dawn World Nothing There Washing All Grass Mountain Zen Trust In The Heart In The Space Inside Direct Pointing Night Magic Not Our Place Backwater Old-Time Sages Logic, Compassion Power Failure Among Dark Leaves Seen/Unseen No Transmission The Guarantee Gazing At The Pattern Still Clinging Go With The Fixity No Fuss The Empty Stream Phantom Grass Voice Let Go Not Natural Always In The Realm Of The Spirit At That Moment Empty Shores A Deeper Mood Credo Black City Echoes It Doesn’t Come From Nowhere Tiny Spaces Are Gigantic The Trackless Track Values In The Grass Dawn, Bamboo, Freedom Dolphin Simple Firelight Forces Inside Plenty Of Time Little Knots Nature Keeps Writing On The Rock-Face Don’t Believe No Ought In Nature Lost Empires Beautiful Freedom, Shining Hills World Of Forces A Concert We Were There, Wherever There Was Leaf-Fall Earth In Her Elements Do...

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This short book is part of the Philosophies Ancient and Modern series, which attempts to make Western philosophy more accessible to the general public. In this volume, George Stock provides a concise primer on Stoicism, the ancient philosophy that maintained that the universe is governed entirely by fate, and that humans can achieve happiness only by cultivating a calm acceptance of the vicissitudes of life. Among the Stoics of the Greek and Roman world were its founder, Zeno, the former slave Epictetus, and the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius. George Stock discusses not only the Stoic ethics, but also less well-known aspects of Stoicism, such as its division of the branches of philosophy, its account of logic, and its natural philosophy. (Summary by Leon Mire)...

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History, Philosophy

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A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge (Commonly called Treatise when referring to Berkeley's works) is a 1710 work by the Irish Empiricist philosopher George Berkeley. This book largely seeks to refute the claims made by his contemporary John Locke about the nature of human perception. Whilst, like all the Empiricist philosophers, both Locke and Berkeley agreed that there was an outside world, and it was this world which caused the ideas one has within one's mind, Berkeley sought to prove that the outside world was also composed solely of ideas. Berkeley did this by suggesting that Ideas can only resemble Ideas - the mental ideas that we possessed could only resemble other ideas (not physical objects) and thus the external world consisted not of physical form, but rather of ideas. This world was given logic and regularity by some other force, which Berkeley concluded was God....

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Philosophy, Psychology

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Categories (Lat. Categoriae, Greek Κατηγορίαι Katēgoriai) is the first of Aristotle's six texts on logic which are collectively known as the Organon. In Categories Aristotle enumerates all the possible kinds of things that can be the subject or the predicate of a proposition. Aristotle places every object of human apprehension under one of ten categories (known to medieval writers as the praedicamenta). Aristotle intended them to enumerate everything that can be expressed without composition or structure, thus anything that can be either the subject or the predicate of a proposition. The ten categories, or classes, are: Substance, Quantity, Quality, Relation, Place, Time, Position, State, Action and Affection. (Wikipedia) The Categories places every object of human apprehension under one of ten categories (known to medieval writers as the praedicamenta). Aristotle intended them to enumerate everything that can be expressed without composition or structure, thus anything that can be either the subject or the predicate of a proposition....

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Classics (antiquity), Philosophy

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The Sophistical Elenchi is the sixth of Aristotle's six texts on logic which are collectively known as the Organon (Instrument). In the Sophistical Elenchi Aristotle identifies 13 falacies. Verbal Fallacies are: Accent or Emphasis; Amphibology; Equivocation; Composition; Division and Figure of Speech. Material Fallacies are: Accident; Affirming the Consequent; Converse Accident; Irrelevant Conclusion; Begging the Question; False Cause and Fallacy of Many Questions. (Adapted from Wikipedia)...

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Science, Philosophy

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The Art of Controversy (or The Art of Being Right ) ( Die Kunst, Recht zu Behalten ) is a short treatise written in 1831 by the German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer in which he presents thirty-eight methods of gaining an unfair advantage in a debate and thereby being right even if you are wrong. Schopenhauer champions the virtue of dialectical argument, in his view wrongly neglected by philosophers in favour of logic, and goes on to discuss the distinction between our conscious intellectual powers and our will. The text is a favourite of debaters including the philosophers AC Grayling and Mary Warnock, and the Mayor of London Boris Johnson. (Summary by Carl Manchester)...

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Philosophy, Instruction

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Taking an unusual approach to its topic, “Principles of Anarchism” applies classical logic and deductive reasoning to the subject of human interactions and rights. Beginning with the assumption that all human beings are equal, a concept which is termed the human equality axiom, the author goes on to draw a number of conclusions from this postulate in the manner of a Euclidean proof. These include the surprising contention that no such thing as human rights can exist, the assertion that anarchism is essentially intellectual rather than activist, and the uncomfortable suggestion that historical developments such as cities and industries are harmful to the human race rather than helpful. More centrally, though, the pamphlet argues very simply that any form of authority or government is logically incompatible with the existence of humanity. And it is the implications of this theory, rejection of which requires rejection of the equality axiom as well, which make the argument offered both novel and exceptionally relevant....

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1. Ontology. 2. Metaphysics. 3. Philosophy, German. 4.Thought and thinking. 5. Kant, Immanuel, 1724-1804. 6. Schelling, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von, 1775-1854. 7. Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 1770-1831. 8. Philosophy, Asian. 9. Philosophy, Indic. 10. Philosophy, Modern -- 20th century. 11. Philosophy, Modern -- 19th century. 12. Practice (Philosophy). 13. Philosophy and civilization. 14. Postmodernism. 15. Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm, 1844-1900. 16. Heidegger, Martin, 1889-1976. -- 17. Nagarjuna 2nd cent. I. Ferrer, Daniel Fidel, 1952-....

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Table of Contents 1). Heidegger and the Purpose of Kant's Critique of Pure Reason (p. 5 to p. 29). ). Martin Heidegger’s Encounter Methodology: Kant (p. 31 to p. 44). 3). Metahistories of philosophy: Kant and Nietzsche (p. 45 to p. 63). 4). Martin Heidegger and Hegel’s Science of Logic (p. 64 to p. 79). 5). Heidegger and Purpose of Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit (p. 80 to p. 102). 6). Analysis of the "Preface" to Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit (p. 103 to p. 110). 7). Hegel's Dialogue with Lesser Known Philosophers (p. 111 to p. 121). 8). Heidegger's Encounter with F.W.J. Schelling: The Questions of Evil and Freedom, and the end of Metaphysics (p. 123 to p. 135). 9). Martin Heidegger contra Nietzsche on the Greeks (p. 136 to p. 148). 10). Martin Heidegger and Nietzsche on Amor Fati (p. 149 to p. 156). (11). Martin Heidegger’s ontotheological problems and Nagarjuna’s solutions: Heidegger’s Presuppositions and Entanglements in Metaphysics (p. 157 to p. 165). Index (p. 166 to p. 235). ...

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It was known to me his setting up in 1980’s of a new literary and artistic avant-garde movement that he called “paradoxism”, because I received some books and papers dealing with it in order to review them for the German journal “Zentralblatt fár Mathematik”. It was an inspired connection he made between literature/arts and science, philosophy....

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Paradoxism is an avant-garde movement in literature, art, philosophy, science, based on excessive used of antitheses, antinomies, contradictions, parables, odds, paradoxes in creations....

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Dialogue format between three great philosophers. Two German and one Buddhist monk from 200 AD India.

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Nāgārjuna talks directly to Martin Heidegger. Martin, you had Parmenides and impossibility of thinking of non-Being. Supposedly, he wrote: “neither could you know what is not nor could you declare it”. Indeed, the rest of the western philosophical history is: Plato’s dialogue the Sophist and stranger’s position about non-Being and the simple discussion of the semantics of non-Being; or Hegel’s view of non-Being in the Science of Logic which is only thought in the general context of progress of the methodology of the “circles of circles”. No wonder your remarks that “nothing nothings” (Das Nichts nichtet) is often thought of as your confusions. You started off with a chair with only one leg and that was unbalanced – this is the western approach which you had to deal with metaphysically. You got stuck too....

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Dramatis personas: Martin Heidegger (1889-1976) owner of the ‘Die Hütte’. Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) Archaya Nagarjuna 2-3th century AD Buddhist author of Fundamental Verses on the Middle Way (Mulamadhyamakakarika). Mādhyamaka Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha (563-483 BC). Socrates (Greek philosopher, 469 BC to 399 BC). Plato (424BC - 348 BC), Greek philosopher who re-wrote the Republic seven time over. Narrator...

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The Theory Of Interpretive Relativity: A Unified Map Of Literary Theory is a comprehensive study organizing and mapping all literary interpretive theory, from classical philosophy to postmodern theory, into one formulaic model. Interpretive Relativity uses, for its method of organizational strategy, the philosophy of relativism to explain how all theoretical interpretation compliment one another rather than contradict one another. This thesis uses extensive graphs and illustrations to aid in the visualization of how mapping theoretical interpretations is possible. The piece of literature, work of art, that is used through out the study is Shakespeare’s Hamlet. In other words, this thesis show how the philosophy of Einstein’s general theory of relativity could be applied to Hamlet....

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“The long concatenations of simple and easy reasoning which geometricians use in achieving their most difficult demonstrations gave me occasion to imagine that all matters which may enter the human mind were interrelated in the same fashion.” -- René Descartes ...

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I. INTRODUCTION: MATHEMATICAL CONSTRUCT STRATEGIES FOR GRAPHING LITERARY INTERPRETATION THEORIES INTO A VISUAL FIGURE, DEFINING TERMS 1 II. MAPPING LITERARY THEORY: DEFINING THE BODY OF LITERATURE, Ln, AND MESSAGE, EMBODIED IN ART, Ln 10 III. FORMING THE X AXIS: SETTING VALUES FOR X AS SIGN, SIGNIFICATION, AND SIGNAL (X1, X2, X3) 18 X1: Sign, Encoding Meaning 21 X2: Signification: The Three Aspects to the Value X2, Concept in a Medium, X21, X22, X23 23 X3: Signal, Decoding Meaning Plotting the 2s OF B’s X31, X32, X33 30 IV. FORMING THE Y AXIS: THE AUDIENCE’S INFINITE MULTIFARIOUS “REALIZATION” 36 The Search for 1: The Messenger and the Author 38 Y 1: The Author’s text 45 Y 2: The Text 50 Y 3: The World 54 Y 4: The Reader 57 V. FORMING THE Z AXIS: VALUES FOR Z, APPLIED RHETORICAL IDEOLOGY 65 Z 1: Marxist Literary Criticism 67 Z 2: Deconstruction Criticism 71 Z 3: Multicultural Literary Criticism 77 Z 4: Psychoanalytic Literary Criticism 80 Z 5: Liberation Literary Criticism 84 VI. CONCLUSION 87...

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An introduction to moral, political and economic philosophy. Twelve philosophers in each category are featured, their basic theories are examined and provide the basis for discussion....

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PARTI An Introduction to Clearer Thinking Chapter 1 Attitudes: How They Affect Our Thinking 3 Chapter 2 Classifying Viewpoints: Conservative and Liberal 12 Chapter 3 Epistemology and Logic 20 Chapter 4 Fallacies: Errors o f L anguage and Logic 32 PART 2 Moral Philosophy: Ideas of Good and Evil, Right and Wrong Chapter 5 Moral Philosophy: A Brief Introduction 47 Chapter 6 Plato and Aristotle: Idealism and Realism 55 Chapter 7 Epicurus and Epictetus: Pleasure and Apathy 65 Chapter 8 Aquinas and Descartes: Faith and Reason 72 Chapter 9 Hume, Bentham and Mill: Subjectivism and Utilitarianism 82 Chapter 10 Kant and Schopenhauer: Idealism and Pessimism 90 Chapter 11 Nietzsche and Sartre: Naturalism and Existentialism 99 PART 3 Political Theory: The Relationship of Man and the State Chapter 12 Introduction to Political Theory 111 Chapter 13 Law: Understanding the Rule o f Reason 119 Chapter 14 Problems o f Government: Five Great Issues 127 Chapter 15 Plato and Aristotle: Utopia and Polity 138 Chapter 16 Augustine and Aquinas: Platonist and Aristotelian 146 Chapter 17 Machiavelli and Hobbes: The Prince ...

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As someone who works heavily in both math and computers, I can truly appreciate the role that logic plays in our modern world. One cannot understand the foundations of mathematics while lacking knowledge of the basics of logic and how proofs are constructed. Two of the first classes I took as a graduate student in mathematics were in the foundations of mathematics, and hardly a day goes by where I do not use some topic from those courses. Logic is also a fundamental component of advanced computer classes. I am currently teaching advanced courses in assembly language programming and computer organization. Reference is constantly being made to how the rules of logic are incorporated into the fundamental circuits of a computer. The logic used in these classes is known as classical or Boolean logic. Neutrosophic logic is an extension of classical logic, but as you will see in the book, there are two intermediate steps between them. Neutrosophic logic is yet another idea generated by Florentin Smarandache, who seems to be a perpetual idea machine. Like classical logic, it can be used in many ways, everywhere from statistics to quantum me...

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Mary Everest Boole (1832-1916) was born Mary Everest in England and spent her early years in France. She married mathematician George Boole. She was the author of several works on teaching and teaching mathematics in particular. This short book, Philosophy and Fun of Algebra, is meant to be read by children and introduces algebra and logic. She uses the word “algebra” broadly, defining it as a “method of solving problems by honest confession of one’s ignorance”. Using this definition, Boole introduces, in a conversational manner, the concepts of logic and algebra, illustrating these concepts with stories and anecdotes, often from biblical sources. At times, her discussion seems somewhat mystical, speaking of the imagination and angels as messengers which guide one toward the next step in a logical investigation. Boole ends the book with a reminder that algebra’s essential element is “the habitual registration of the exact limits of one’s knowledge” and a call for the public to keep this principle in mind when encountering any situation. (Summary written by Patricia Oakley)...

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Children, Philosophy, Science

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Thomas Troward was a divisional Judge in British-administered India. His avocation was the study of comparative religion. Influences on his thinking, as well as his later writing, included the teachings of Christ, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism. After his retirement from the judiciary in 1896, Troward set out to apply logic and a judicial weighing of evidence in the study of matters of cause and effect. The philosopher William James characterized Troward’s Edinburgh Lectures on Mental Science as far and away the ablest statement of philosophy I have met, beautiful in its sustained clearness of thought and style, a really classic statement. According to Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) archivist Nell Wing, early AA members were strongly encouraged to read Thomas Troward's Edinburgh Lectures on Mental Science. In the opening of the 2006 film The Secret , introductory remarks credit Troward's philosophy with inspiring the movie and its production....

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Psychology, Philosophy

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The introduction to Hegel's lectures on the philosophy of world history is often used to introduce students to Hegel's philosophy, in part because Hegel's sometimes difficult style is muted in the lectures, and he discourses on accessible themes such as world events in order to explain his philosophy. Much of the work is spent defining and characterizing Geist or spirit. Geist is similar to the culture of people, and is constantly reworking itself to keep up with the changes of society, while at the same time working to produce those changes through what Hegel called the cunning of reason. Another important theme of the text is the focus on world history, rather than regional or state history. The obscure writings of Jakob Böhme had a strong effect on Hegel. Böhme had written that the Fall of Man was a necessary stage in the evolution of the universe. This evolution was, itself, the result of God's desire for complete self-awareness. Hegel was fascinated by the works of Spinoza, Kant, Rousseau, and Goethe, and by the French Revolution. Modern philosophy, culture, and society seemed to Hegel fraught with contradictions and tensions, ...

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Philosophy, History